Subjective Well-Being
- Sunny-Side Wellness
- Apr 28, 2020
- 6 min read
Updated: Jan 12, 2022
We all want the best life possible, but what does that mean? How do we achieve it? And is it even in our control? Recent psychological studies show that quality of life can be somewhat measured by happiness, life satisfaction, and positive affect (Diener, 2009). While these staples of life seem simple and obvious, the way people achieve these goals can differ greatly. Over the years, psychological researchers have established a number of fundamental theories to describe the ways people aim to achieve personal well-being. The most common approaches are through hedonism, eudaimonia, engagement in life activities, and self-determination (Compton & Hoffman, 2012).
Hedonism
The philosophy of hedonism has been practiced for thousands of years, dating back to the Ancient Greeks, and involves enjoying all the pleasures life has to offer. This fundamental belief is quite simple in nature but is also considered short-lived as rarely does it produce life lasting results (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). Hedonists tend to gravitate towards intense social relationships or family ties and strive for positive emotionality. The goal of the hedonist is to achieve instant happiness in a variety of ways (Compton & Hoffman, 2012).
Eudaimonia
Also focusing on positive emotionality is eudaimonia. Yet unlike hedonism, the eudaimonic approach is long-term, striving for well-being by fulfilling one’s potential over the course of a lifetime. Eudaimonia involves finding one’s “true self” and living a life that incorporates the highest values and morals one has to offer. Interestingly, research has found that hedonistic and eudaimonic perspectives and activities are processed in the same region of the brain (Compton & Hoffman, 2012).
Life Engagement
Focusing less on emotion and more on life involvement, the life engagement theory revolves around how absorbed a person is with life activities, making necessary life choices, and pursuing reasonable, feasible goals. This is accomplished through active and interested participation of intrinsically motivating events. It is important to note that these goals can, and will likely change over time, and accordingly, the engagement theory is more fluid in nature than hedonism or eudaimonia (Compton & Hoffman, 2012).
Self-Determination
Scientists have found that together with innate tendencies and one’s personal emotional needs, people form their own unique determinations for their own lives. These are explained as a person’s three basic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. Competence is described as a person’s mastery in managing themselves through all the events life has to offer, both positive and negative. Alternatively, relatedness has a more social angle, describing a person’s need for social and interpersonal relationships. Autonomy, on the other hand, is a person’s need and ability to make their own decisions in life (Compton & Hoffman, 2012). Psychologists have coined these three elements as “essential for facilitating optimal functioning” of personal and social development, growth, and well-being.
Internet & Well-Being
With the modern days upon us, technology has had a meaningful impact, both positively and negatively, on our overall well-being. Traditionally, the internet and social media were associated with people who were unhappy and isolated, looking to connect with others that they did not know (Holsten, 2018). Such negative feedback was also associated with the inference that the internet acted as an instrument of time suckage and provided no meaningful value to a productive life at all. However, as times progress and broaden, so do the views on the subject. Today's research suggests that there are many health advantages to the internet and social media. It is there for us when we are lonely, it grants us encouragement from around the world when we are down, it provides self-help tutorials, and connects the user with wellness care at the touch of their fingertips. It also provides vast interconnections that allow for the expansion of important professional and interpersonal relationships; relationships that otherwise would not have existed if not for the internet.
Be aware that the use of the internet has the potential of revealing certain personality traits that could be detrimental to a person's well-being. Narcissism, increased stress, and reliance on false relationships are just a few examples of the adverse side-effects of internet use; and can actually compound the more time you spend surfing the net (Holsten, 2018). A specific association exists between young people who use Facebook and depression. Self-reporting measures have shown that the majority of young people who use Facebook feel more negatively about themselves than those who do not use Facebook (Hocking, 2018).
Subjective Well-Being in the Realm of Traditional Psychology
The perspectives of traditional psychology have been developing over many years, starting with Freud and continuing with modern philosophers like Seligman. Classical ideologies like the psychoanalytic, humanistic, cognitive, and behavioral theories all have an impact on worldly issues as well as personal well-being.
The Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud established the classic theory of psychoanalysis, believing that people could tap into their subconscious to release negative thought or emotion (McLeod, 2007). The heart of traditional psychoanalysis aims at identifying and treating repressed memories and adverse experiences (McLeod, 2007). Today, psychoanalysis therapy combines classical thought with the modern theory of positivism, concentrating less on the negative and more on the pragmatic, optimistic, and constructive aspects of a person's memories and life. Modern psychoanalytic therapy encourages a sense of well-being through three main principals: personal meaning, aesthetic competence, and a desire in life to accomplish (Leffert, 2017).
The Behavioral Theory
The behaviorist movement began in 1913 emphasizing the concept that all behavior is learned through observations of the environment around them (McLeod, 2017). It is a scientific and objective perspective, using subjective well-being as a variable in this experimental approach; influencing each other, sharing and shedding the positive aspects of human nature, and teaching people how to better each other in the context of society.
The Humanistic Theory
The psychologist, Maslow, developed the humanistic approach in 1943, which focuses on the individual as a unique force (McLeod, 2015). It grew out of the limitations exhibited by the psychoanalytic and behavioral perspectives, which aimed at fixing the negative of that person. The humanistic theory incorporates subjective well-being by believing that all people are innately good and have free will to choose the actions of their own life (McLeod, 2015).
The Cognitive Theory
This approach evolved in the 1950s, concentrating on the capability of the human mind and the way it processes information (McLeod, 2018). Comparing the processing of the human mind to that of a computer, cognitive scientists examine the relationship between stimuli and brain response (Margolis & Lyubomirsky, 2018). The way people interpret stimuli, process information, and respond through action affects a person's subjective well-being. Specific cognitive traits that especially affect a person's well-being are gratitude, attributional style, self-esteem, relationship connectedness, optimism, autonomy, and rumination style (Margolis & Lyubomirsky, 2018).
Subjective Well-Being & Applied Research
Since the 1960s, positive psychology and the search for the definition of well-being have been applied to both observational and experimental research in many educational and scientific arenas. Here are some examples of some significant research that has been applied to this field.
Counting Blessings of Early Adolescents - This study was conducted in 2008 at Hofstra University, where a group of psychologists examined the outlook of gratitude among early adolescents, hypothesizing and ultimately concluding that those who exhibit more gratitude are more likely to possess moral precursors that encourage good behavior and disparage negative behavior (Froh, Sefick, & Emmons, 2008).
The Impact of Culture on the Individual Subjective Well-Being of the Italian Population- This 2011 Italian study looked at a person's access to cultural influence and its impact on their personal well-being. Using cross-sectional surveys, the authors concluded that culture does play a role in shaping a person's well-being and this consideration should guide and persuade public policy (Grossi, Sacco, Blessi, 2010).
Enhancing Poverty-Abatement Programs - In an effort to regulate better public policy for poverty, this study/paper was published with the intent on examining whether or not money actually makes people happier. The authors found that while income stability was important to subjective well-being, other life satisfaction measures like interpersonal relationships and education were of significant importance (Rojas, 2009).
The Structure & Stability of Subjective Well- Being - In 2009 a group of researchers asked 300 adults to answer a variety of questions about themselves. Based on the affective and cognitive self-reporting responses, the researchers found subjective well-being to be influenced mainly by four key factors: satisfaction with life, positive affect, negative affect, and global subjective well-being. The most influential of all of them however, was positive affect. People who demonstrated a positive outlook on life, possessed, in general, a healthier personal well-being (Galinha & Pais-Ribeiro, 2008).
References
Compton, W.C., & Hoffman, E. (2012). Positive psychology: The science of happiness and flourishing. Independence, KY: Cengage
Diener E. (2009) Subjective Well-Being. In: Diener E. (eds) The Science of Well-Being. Social Indicators Research Series, vol 37. Springer, Dordrecht
Froh, J. J., Sefick, W. J., & Emmons, R. A. (2008). Counting blessings in early adolescents: An experimental study of gratitude and subjective well-being. Journal of School Psychology,46(2), 213–233. https://doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1016/j.jsp.2007.03.005
Galinha, I. C. C., Pais-Ribeiro, J. L. (2008). The structure and stability of subjective well- being: a structure equation modelling analysis. Applied Research Quality Life (3), 293– 314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-009-9063-0
Grossi, E., Sacco, P. L., Blessi, G. T. (2010). The impact of culture on the individual subjective well-being of the Italian population: an exploratory study. Applied Research Quality Life, 387–410 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-010-9135-1
Hocking, L. (2018). Does social media depresion in young people really exist? Retrieved from https:medicalxpress.com/news/2018-02-social-media-depression-young- people.html
Leffert, M. (2017). Positive psychoanalysis: Meaning, aesthetics and subjective well-being. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Margolis, S., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2018). Cognitive outlooks and well-being. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of Well-Being. Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Publishers. DOI:nobascholar.com
McLeod, S. (2007). Psychoanalysis. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/psychoanalysis.html
McLeod, S. (2015). Humanistic approach. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/humanostic.htm
McLeod, S. (2017). Behaviorism. Retrieved from www. simplypsychology.org/behaviorism. html
Pascha, M. (2020). The PERMA model: your scientific theory of happiness. Retrieved from https://positivepsychology.com/perma-model/
Rojas, M. (2009). Enhancing poverty-abatement programs: a subjective well-being contribution. Applied Research Quality Life (4),179–199. https://doi- org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1007/s11482-009-9071-0
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